Doctrine of lapse

The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy purportedly devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General for the East India Company in India between 1848 and 1856. According to the Doctrine, any princely state or territory under the direct influence (paramountcy) of the British East India Company (the dominant imperial power in the subcontinent), as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would automatically be annexed if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a male heir".The latter supplanted the long-established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to choose a successor[citation needed]. In addition, the British decided whether potential rulers were competent enough. The doctrine and its application were widely regarded by many Indians as illegitimate.

MARS ORBITER MISSION

The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also called Mangalyaan ("Mars-craft", from Sanskrit: मंगल mangala, "Mars" and यान yāna, "craft, vehicle"),] is a space probe orbiting Mars since 24 September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is India's first interplanetary mission and ISRO has become the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA, and the European Space Agency It is the first Asian nation to reach Mars orbit, and the first nation in the world to do so in its first attempt.

The Mars Orbiter Mission probe lifted-off from the First Launch Pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre (Sriharikota Range SHAR), Andhra Pradesh, using a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket C25 at 09:08 UTC on 5 November 2013.[23] The launch window was approximately 20 days long and started on 28 October 2013. The MOM probe spent about a month in Earth orbit, where it made a series of seven apogee-raising orbital manoeuvres before trans-Mars injection on 30 November 2013 (UTC).After a 298-day transit to Mars, it was successfully inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.
The mission is a "technology demonstrator" project to develop the technologies for design, planning, management, and operations of an interplanetary mission. It carries five instruments that will help advance knowledge about Mars to achieve its secondary, scientific objective. The spacecraft is currently being monitored from the Spacecraft Control Centre at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bangalore with support from Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN) antennae at Byalalu.

VETO

A veto – Latin for "I forbid" – is the power (used by an officer of the state, for example) to unilaterally stop an official action, especially the enactment of legislation. A veto can be absolute, as for instance in the United Nations Security Council, whose permanent members (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States of America) can block any resolution. Or it can be limited, as in the legislative process of the United States, where a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate may override a Presidential veto of legislation. A veto gives power only to stop changes, not to adopt them (except for the rare "amendatory veto"). Thus a veto allows its holder to protect the status quo.

The concept of a veto body originated with the Roman consuls and tribunes. Either of the two consuls holding office in a given year could block a military or civil decision by the other; any tribune had the power to unilaterally block legislation passed by the Roman Senate.
The President of India is vested with the following three types of veto power.
1. Absolute Veto
2. Suspensive Veto
3. Pocket Veto.

SANTHARA OR SALLEKHANA IN JAINISM

Sallekhanā (also Santhara, Samadhi-marana, Sanyasana-marana), is the Jain practice of facing death voluntarily at the end of one's life.It is prescribed both for the householder and ascetics.Sallekhana is made up from two words sal (meaning 'properly') and lekhana, which means to thin out. Properly thinning out of the passions and the body is 'Sallekhanā'.Sallekhana is allowed only when a person is suffering from incurable disease or great disability or when a person is nearing his end. It is a highly respected practice among the members of the Jain community.According to Jain Agamas, sallekhanā leads to ahimsā (non-violence or non-injury), as person observing sallekhanā subjugates the passions, which are the root cause of himsā (injury or violence).

The person observing sallekhana does not wish to die nor he is aspiring to live in a state of inability where he / she can't undertake his / her own chores. In Jainism, there is a daily prayer where a person wishes to be able to face death after having taken the vow of sallekhana. Due to the prolonged nature of sallekhana, the individual is given ample time to reflect on his or her life. The purpose is to purge old karmas and prevent the creation of new ones. According to Tattvartha Sutra (a compendium of Jain principles):"A householder willingly or voluntary adopts Sallekhana when death is very near."
According to Jain Agamas, following should be avoided after taking the vow of sallekhanā:[8][9]-
desire to live
desire to die
recollection of the pleasures enjoyed
longing for the enjoyment of pleasures in future.
RECENTLY RAJASTHAN HIGH COURT BANNED IT BUT SUPREME COURT OVERRULED THE VERDICT OF LOWER COURT.

GOLD NANOPARTICLES- USES

Applications

The range of applications for gold nanoparticles is growing rapidly and includes:

1. Electronics - Gold nanoparticles are designed for use as conductors from printable inks to electronic chips.¹ As the world of electronics become smaller, nanoparticles are important components in the chip design. Nanoscale gold nanoparticles are being used to connect resistors, conductors, and other elements of an electronic chip.
2. Photodynamic Therapy - Near-IR absorbing gold nanoparticles (including gold nanoshells and nanorods) produce heat when excited

- See more at: http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/nanomaterials/gold-nanoparticles.html#sthash.yZRWYXkS.dpuf

 DRUG DELIVERY

Applications

The range of applications for gold nanoparticles is growing rapidly and includes:

1. Electronics - Gold nanoparticles are designed for use as conductors from printable inks to electronic chips.¹ As the world of electronics become smaller, nanoparticles are important components in the chip design. Nanoscale gold nanoparticles are being used to connect resistors, conductors, and other elements of an electronic chip.
2. Photodynamic Therapy - Near-IR absorbing gold nanoparticles (including gold nanoshells and nanorods) produce heat when excited

- See more at: http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/nanomaterials/gold-nanoparticles.html#sthash.yZRWYXkS.dpuf

Applications

The range of applications for gold nanoparticles is growing rapidly and includes:

1. Electronics - Gold nanoparticles are designed for use as conductors from printable inks to electronic chips.¹ As the world of electronics become smaller, nanoparticles are important components in the chip design. Nanoscale gold nanoparticles are being used to connect resistors, conductors, and other elements of an electronic chip.
2. Photodynamic Therapy - Near-IR absorbing gold nanoparticles (including gold nanoshells and nanorods) produce heat when excited

- See more at: http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/materials-science/nanomaterials/gold-nanoparticles.html#sthash.yZRWYXkS.dpufDrug delivery systemDE Gold nanoparticles can be used to optimize the biodistribution of drugs to diseased organs, tissues or cells, in order to improve and target drug delivery.It is important to realize that the nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery is feasible only if the drug distribution is otherwise inadequate. These cases include drug targeting of difficult, unstable molecules (proteins, siRNA, DNA), delivery to the difficult sites (brain, retina, tumors, intracellular organelles) and drugs with serious side effects (e.g. anti-cancer agents). The performance of the nanoparticles depends on the size and surface functionalities in the particles. Also, the drug release and particle disintegration can vary depending on the system (e.g. biodegradable polymers sensitive to pH). An optimal nanodrug delivery system ensures that the active drug is available at the site of action for the correct time and duration, and their concentration should be above the minimal effective concentration (MEC) and below the minimal toxic concentration (MTC).

Gold nanoparticles are being investigated as carriers for drugs such as Paclitaxel. The administration of hydrophobic drugs require molecular encapsulation and it is found that nanosized particles are particularly efficient in evading the reticuloendothelial system.
Gold nanoparticles are also used to circumvent multidrug resistance (MDR) mechanisms.Mechanisms of MDR include decreased uptake of drugs, reduced intracellular drug concentration by activation of the efflux transporters, modifications in cellular pathways by altering cell cycle checkpoints, increased metabolism of drugs, induced emergency response genes to impair apoptotic pathways and altered DNA repair mechanisms.

• In Ayurveda. More than 1,000 years ago, gold was used as a nanoparticle (swarnabhasma).
• At that time, there were no sophisticated instruments and that is why people did not know that it was a gold nanoparticle.
• gold nanoparticle was bio-compatible, easy to synthesize and multiple cancer drugs could be loaded. It could reduce the toxicity of the anti-cancer drug,
• Scientists are now using an eco-friendly green chemistry approach- via leaf extracts of Bhringaraj (a herbal plant) to create the biocompatible nanoparticles.
• Bhringaraj-extracted bio-compatible gold nanoparticle was used to deliver an anti-cancer drug —Doxorubicin into lung and breast cancer cell lines.
• If you add fluorescent molecule in these gold nanoparticles, it could be used to detect the position of the tumor.

• Tumor detection

  In cancer research, colloidal gold can be used to target tumors and provide detection using SERS (Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy) in vivo. These gold nanoparticles are surrounded with Raman reporters, which provide light emission that is over 200 times brighter than quantum dots. It was found that the Raman reporters were stabilized when the nanoparticles were encapsulated with a thiol-modified polyethylene glycol coat. This allows for compatibility and circulation in vivo. To specifically target tumor cells, the pegylated gold particles are conjugated with an antibody (or an antibody fragment such as scFv), against, e.g. Epidermal growth factor receptor, which is sometimes overexpressed in cells of certain cancer types. Using SERS, these pegylated gold nanoparticles can then detect the location of the tumor.
  Gold nanoparticles accumulate in tumors, due to the leakiness of tumor vasculature, and can be used as contrast agents for enhanced imaging in a time-resolved optical tomography system using short-pulse lasers for skin cancer detection in mouse model. It is found that intravenously administrated spherical gold nanoparticles broadened the temporal profile of reflected optical signals and enhanced the contrast between surrounding normal tissue and tumors.
  
  

  Tumor targeting via multifunctional nanocarriers. Cancer cells reduce adhesion to neighboring cells and migrate into the vasculature-rich stroma. Once at the vasculature, cells can freely enter the bloodstream. Once the tumor is directly connected to the main blood circulation system, multifunctional nanocarriers can interact directly with cancer cells and effectively target tumors.
  Therefore, gold nanoparticles have the potential to join numerous therapeutic functions into a single platform, by targeting specific tumor cells, tissues and organs. Actually, Conde et al. reported the evaluation of the inflammatory response and therapeutic siRNA silencing via RGD-nanoparticles in a lung cancer mouse model. This study reported the use of siRNA/RGD gold nanoparticles capable of targeting tumor cells in two lung cancer xenograft mouse models, resulting in successful and significant c-Myc oncogene downregulation followed by tumor growth inhibition and prolonged survival of the animals. This delivery system can achieve translocation of siRNA duplexesattention and, in particular, small-interference RNA (siRNA) shows importance in novel molecular approaches in the knockdown of specific gene expression in cancerous cells. The major obstacle to clinical application is the uncertainty about how to deliver therapeutic siRNAs with maximal therapeutic impact. Gold nanoparticles have shown potential as intracellular delivery vehicles for siRNA oligonucleotides with maximal therapeutic impact.
  
  

  Regulation of gene expression via siRNA-gold nanoparticles. Engineered nanoparticles modified with siRNA can represent a delivery system of siRNA and a useful tool to block gene function and for sequence-specific post-transcriptional gene silencing. siRNA-modified nanocarriers can enter cells and subsequently unwound siRNA strands and assembled into an effector complex, RNA Induced Silencing Complex (RISC), which can direct RNA cleavage, mediate translational repression or induce chromatin modification. The antisense strand then binds to its complementary/target mRNA (activated RISC/mRNA complex). The catalytic RISC recognizes mRNAs containing perfect or near-perfect complementary sequence to the guide siRNA and cleaves the mRNAs at a site precisely 10 nucleotides from the 5’-end of the guide strand. Finally, mRNA degradation is achieved by endo- and exonucleases, resulting in knockdown of the expression of the corresponding genes.
  Recently, Conde et al. provided evidence of in vitro and in vivo RNAi triggering via the synthesis of a library of novel multifunctional gold nanoparticles, using a hierarchical approach including three biological systems of increasing complexity: in vitro cultured human cells, in vivo freshwater polyp (Hydra vulgaris), and in vivo mice models. The authors developed effective conjugation strategies to combine, in a highly controlled way, specific biomolecules to the surface of gold nanoparticles such as: (a) biofunctional spacers: Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) spacers used to increase solubility and biocompatibility; (b) cell penetrating peptides such as TAT and RGD peptides: A novel class of membrane translocating agents named cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) that exploit more than one mechanism of endolecules and even small particles inside the cell for their biological actions; and (c) siRNA complementary to a master regulator gene, the protooncogene c-myc, were bond covalently (thiol-siRNA) and ionically (naked/unmodified siRNA) to gold nanoparticles. ocytosis to overcome the lipophilic barrier of the cellular membranes and deliver large mo directly into the tumour cell cytoplasm and accomplish successful silencing of an oncogene expression. Actually, RGD/siRNA-AuNPs can target preferentially and be taken up by tumor cells via integrin αvβ3-receptor-mediated endocytosis with no cytotoxicity, showing that can accumulate in tumor tissues overexpressing αvβ3 integrins and selectively delivered c-Myc siRNA to suppress tumor growth and angiogenesis.
  

  
  nanoparticles have also shown potential as intracellular delivery vehicles for antisense oligonucleotides (ssDNA,dsDNA) by providing protection against intracellular nucleases and ease of functionalization for selective targeting.^[54][55] Recently, Conde et al. developed a new theranostic system capable of intersecting all RNA pathways: from gene specific downregulation to silencing the silencers, i.e. siRNA and miRNA pathways. The authors reported the development gold nanoparticles functionalized with a fluorophore labeled hairpin-DNA, i.e. gold nanobeacons, capable of efficiently silencing single gene expression, exogenous siRNA and endogenous miRNAs while yielding a quantifiable fluorescence signal directly proportional to the level of silencing. This method describes a gold nanoparticle-based nanobeacon as an innovative theranostic approach for detection and inhibition of sequence-specific DNA and RNA for in vitro and ex vivo applications. Under hairpin configuration, proximity to gold nanoparticles leads to fluorescence quenching; hybridization to a complementary target restores fluorescence emission due to the gold nanobeacons’ conformational reorganization that causes the fluorophore and the gold nanoparticle to part from each other. This concept can easily be extended and adapted to assist the in vitro evaluation of silencing potential of a given sequence to be later used for ex vivo gene silencing and RNAi approaches, with the ability to monitor real-time gene delivery action.^[

  Photothermal agents

  Gold nanorods are being investigated as photothermal agents for in-vivo applications. Gold nanorods are rod-shaped gold nanoparticles whose aspect ratios tune the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band from the visible to near-infrared wavelength. The total extinction of light at the SPR is made up of both absorption and scattering. For the smaller axial diameter nanorods (~10 nm), absorption dominates, whereas for the larger axial diameter nanorods (>35 nm) scattering can dominate. As a consequence, for in-vivo applications, small diameter gold nanorods are being used as photothermal converters of near-infrared light due to their high absorption cross-sections.^{[citation needed]} Since near-infrared light transmits readily through human skin and tissue, these nanorods can be used as ablation components for cancer, and other targets. When coated with polymers, gold nanorods have been known to circulate in-vivo for greater than 15 hours half-life.^{[citation needed]} Apart from rod-like gold nanoparticles, also spherical colloidal gold nanoparticles are recently used as markers in combination with photothermal single particle microscopy.
  

  Radiotherapy dose enhancer

  Following work by Hainfield et al. there has been considerable interest in the use of gold and other heavy-atom containing nanoparticles to enhance the dose delivered to tumors. Since the gold nanoparticles are taken up by the tumors more than the nearby healthy tissue, the dose is selectively enhanced. The biological effectiveness of this type of therapy seems to be due to the local deposition of the radiation dose near the nanoparticles. This mechanism is the same as occurs in heavy ion therapy.
  

  Detection of toxic gas

  Researchers have developed simple inexpensive methods for on-site detection of hydrogen sulfide H
  2S present in air based on the antiaggregation of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Dissolving H
  2S into a weak alkaline buff solution leads to the formation of HS-, which can stabilize AuNPs and ensure they maintain their red color allowing for visual detection of toxic levels of H
  2S.
  

GENE PATENTING

• Gene patent definition. The controversial legal practice of patenting a newly discovered gene. It allows unique segments of DNA, which perhaps code for a certain disease or a certain protein, to be owned by an individual or corporation.
• BRCA1 and BRCA2 human genes used for diagnosing breast and ovarian cancers. (BRCA= BReast CAncer). If a woman has mutation (fault) in BRCA 1 or 2= higher risk of breast/ovarian cancer.
• U.S. Patent and Trademark Office has been awarding patents on genes for about 30 years.
• In the mid-90s, Myriad Genetics ltd. got patents for the BRCA genes.
• Thanks to this patent, Myriad genetics company got monopoly for selling BRCA gene testing. Each test costs >3000$.
• 2009-10: The American Civil Liberties Union (an NGO) challenged this patent in court. Their point= Nobody can “patent” human genes because genes are products of nature.
• 2013: Matter going in US Supreme Court 
• Pros: * Gives companies that patent genes time to look at the genes without competition. These companies do not have to worry that other companies are competing with them to make new discoveries. This is especially important for smaller companies that may not have the financial support to compete with larger, more established companies.
  * Encourages research and development in private industry. Patents support innovation and invention by giving companies rights to gene sequences. The lure of a potential patent drives and pushes researchers to think more creatively and work harder in order to obtain a patent for their work.
  * Provides opportunities for investment in research and development. Companies, as well as individuals, can invest in a patented gene. This provides financial support for the development of useful innovations. It can take hundreds of millions of dollars to introduce a new drug to the market. Most companies do not have this money and rely on investors for financial assistance.
  
  Cons:
  * Hinders research. Since patents give the owners intellectual property rights on the patented genome sequence for 17 to 20 years, many people fear that gene patents hinder research. For example, patents on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene variants, which have been linked to inherited breast and ovarian cancers, belong to Myriad Genetics. The patents give Myriad Genetics exclusive rights to conduct diagnostic tests on these genes. This means that other companies are not allowed to work with these genes, missing out on the potential to make important discoveries on these patented genes.
  * Leads to monopolization of genes. Companies that hold gene patents have exclusive rights to them and may decide to not allow other companies to look at these genes. This may lead to a monopoly and foster a secretive culture among research companies.
  * Slows down medical results. If a company holds a gene patent, they own sole rights to research and testing on that gene. So if a patient has a test done on that gene, the samples must be sent to the company owning the gene patent in order to be tested. This could cause delays in getting test results.
  
  

Ordinance Making power Of President- Democracy through Ordinance route

The Ordinance making power of the President has been granted in the Constitution of India under Article 123. The Article 123 gives power to the President to make Ordinances when “both Houses of the Parliament are not in session and the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary for him to take immediate action.” The underlying question of debate is whether the ordinance making power of President a parallel power of legislation. This paper tries to throw a light on this question with special reference to the case of A.K. Roy v. Union of India AIR 1982 SC 710.

It is considered one of the important legislative powers of the President, however is subject to limitations like

i. An ordinance may be issued by the President only when one House is in session.
ii. An ordinance may be made under circumstances which require immediate action.
iii. An ordinance can be made only on subjects on which Parliament can made laws and is subject to the limitations, to which a Parliamentary law is subjected.

 v. An ordinance needs to be present before the Houses of Parliament who reassembles. An ordinance ceases to operate on the expiry of six weeks from the reassembly of Parliament. If the Houses reassemble on different date the period of six weeks is calculated from the later of those dates. Without being approved by the Parliament and ordinance can last for a maximum period of six months and six weeks. All acts done and completed under an unapproved ordinance will lapse.

Executive cannot misuse the extraordinary provisions of “Ordinance making” and “Joint session” to undermine the legitimate role of legislature and Rajya Sabha in particular

The President may withdraw an ordinance at any time. However, the President exercises the power on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. An ordinance may have retrospective effect and may be modify repeal any act of Parliament or even another ordinance. It may also amend or alter a tax law but never can be used to amend the Constitution.
This unusual power has been given to the President, so that the Executive can deal with a situation of urgeny,

Various Issues around Ordinance Making power of President of India

Article 123 of the Indian constitution empowers the President to promulgate ordinances. This mechanism has been devised to enable the executive to deal with a situation that may suddenly and immediately arise when the Parliament is not in session (either one or both houses). Following points are important about ordinances:
If at any time, except when both Houses of Parliament are in session, the President is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary for him to take immediate action, he may promulgate such Ordinances as the circumstances appear to him to require.
An Ordinance promulgated under this article shall have the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament, but every such Ordinance—

• Shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament and shall cease to operate at the expiration of six weeks from the reassembly of Parliament, or, if before the expiration of that period resolution disapproving it are passed by both Houses, upon the passing of the second of those resolutions. As maximum gap between two session of a house can be 6 months therefore maximum life of a ordinance can be 6 months and 6 weeks; and
• May be withdrawn at any time by the President.

Explanation:—where the Houses of Parliament are summoned to reassemble on different dates, the period of six weeks shall be reckoned from the later of those dates for the purposes of this clause.
If and so far as an Ordinance under this article makes any provision which Parliament would not under this Constitution be competent to enact, it shall be void. In other words it can be issued only on those subjects on which parliament has jurisdiction.
The president can also withdraw ordinance at any
any time. But this power of President regarding ordinances is not discretionary; he has to act on the aid and advice of council of ministers. This ordinances cannot be issued amend the constitution.
Statement explaining about the circumstances that necessitated the issuance of ordinance is required to be placed before the house; this requirement is mentioned under the rules of Lok Sabha.
DC Wadhwa case (1987) judgement by Supreme Court dealt with the issue of ordinance. The governor of Bihar issued 256 ordinances between 1967 and 1981 and life of these ordinances ranged between 1 to 14 years. Court held that repromulgation of ordinances with the same text, without giving any chance to house to pass it, would amount to violation of the constitution, thus these ordinances can be struck down. Finally court held that power given to president to deal with extraordinary situation can be used as a substitute for the legislative power of the state assembly. Following graph shows the number of ordinances issued by government after 1990:
Recent ordinances issued by the Modi government are listed in the below graphics:

Issues about ordinance making

Constitution has provided separation of power between legislature and executive. Through ordinance route executive creates instability about this separation.
Satisfaction of President

Ordinance can be promulgated only when he is satisfied that circumstances exist for the same. In Cooper case (1970) Supreme Court held that his satisfaction can questioned on the ground of malafide. In other words his satisfaction can be questioned on the ground that he has deliberately prorogued the parliament to bypass the legislative route on a controversial subject.
Recent remarks by President Dr. Pranab Mukherjee ‘‘ a noisy minority cannot be allowed to gag a patient majority”, clearly shows the deadlock created due to adamant behaviour of opposition parties. Constructive debates in parliament have been replaced by intentional deadlocks created by opposition parties.
Thus opposition party needs to play a constructive role in the house of the parliament. Number of days the Members of Parliament meet, has been reduced drastically to allow debates to take place on controversial issues. Therefore number of days parliament houses meet should be increased. So giving space to opposition party by the ruling party and increasing the number of days members of parliament meet, can solve the issue of bypassing the legislature and strengthen the Indian democracy.

 

Super Wi-Fi or WHITE WiFi

Super Wi-Fi

Super Wi-Fi is a term coined by the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to describe a wireless networking proposal which the FCC plans to use for the creation of longer-distance wireless Internet access. The use of the trademark "Wi-Fi" in the name has been criticized because it is not based on Wi-Fi technology or endorsed by the Wi-Fi Alliance. A trade show has also been called the "Super WiFi Summit" (without hyphen).Various standards such as IEEE 802.22 have been proposed for this concept.
Instead of using the 2.4 GHz radio frequency of Wi-Fi, the 'Super Wi-Fi' proposal uses the lower-frequency white spaces between television channel frequencies. These lower frequencies allow the signal to travel further and penetrate walls better than the higher frequencies previously used.The FCC's plan was to allow those white space frequencies to be used for free, as happens with shorter-range Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

History

As result of hearing on the safety of analog television broadcasting and the telecommunication act of 1996 along with the preliminary hearing material, the U.S. Federal Communication Commission laid the ground work for a framework for HDTV. One major player in the development of Super WiFi is the various patents for Nielsen Rating Technology which predates the development of commercial WiFi. For example, US Patent 7152287 credits many previous patent since 1982 but many reference the Nielson Rating to about the 1920.
US Federal Communications Commission's approved the rules for "white spaces" on September 23, 2010 as it has done for many university since the 1990s.
On April 19, 2011, Rice University, in partnership with the nonprofit organization Technology For All, installed the first residential deployment of Super Wi-Fi in east Houston. The network uses white spaces for backhaul and provides access to clients using 2.4GHz Wi-Fi.
On May 8, 2011, a public Super Wi-Fi network was developed in Calgary, Alberta. Calgary based company WestNet City Wi-Fi. launched the network for free and paid subscribers.
On January 26, 2012, the United States first public Super Wi-Fi network was developed in Wilmington, North Carolina. Florida based company Spectrum Bridge, Inc. launched the network for public use with access at Hugh MacRae park.
On July 9, 2013, West Virginia University launched the first campus Super WiFi network.

BIO-DIGESTER

Biodigester technology has been developed for resolving the problems of un-decomposed human waste. The innovation degrades and converts the human waste into usable water and gasses in an eco-friendly manner. The generated gas can be utilized for energy/ cooking and water for irrigation purposes.
The process involves the bacteria which feed upon the faecal matter inside the tank, through anaerobic process which finally degrades the matter and releases methane gas that can be used for cooking, along with the treated water.
The Bio-digester tank can be manufactured and customised as per the requirement.
Salient Features:

No bad smell in toilets from the tanks
Faecal matter in the tank not visible
No infestation of cockroaches & flies
No clogging of digester
Effluent is free from off odour and solid waste
Reduction in pathogens by 99%
Reduction in organic matter by 90%
No maintenance required
No requirement of adding bacteria/ enzyme
No need of removal of solid waste
Use of phenyl is permitted upto 84 ppm
 
Areas of Applications
 Bio-Toilets
Septic tanks

Methane Hydrates-Future of Carbon Fuels

When gas molecules are trapped in a lattice of water molecules at temperatures above 0°C and pressures above one atmosphere, they can form a sta­ble solid. These solids are gas hydrates.
Most gas hydrates are formed from methane (CH4). Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon, and is the primary component of the natural gas that we burn for energy. If you hold a hydrate nodule in your hand and light it with a match, it will burn like a lantern wick. There is fire in this ice!
Gas hydrate deposits along ocean margins are estimated to exceed known petroleum reserves by about a factor of three. These hydrate beds leak gas­es into the water, forming cold seeps on the ocean floor. This hydrocarbon seepage is common on continental margins around the world.
Chemosynthetic communities similar to those found at hydrothermal vents form at cold seeps, using hydrocarbons or hydrogen sulfide for carbon and energy. Seep tube worms, mussels, and clams form two-meter-high bushes over kilometer-sized beds. Most seeps are also characterized by high microbial productivity.
Hydrates influence ocean carbon cycling, global climate change, and coastal sediment stability. Localized melt­downs have caused massive continental slope failure, which can present a geological hazard for shelf oil and gas production. Massive hydrate dissolution events, releasing vast amounts of the greenhouse gas methane, are possible causes of some of the abrupt climate chang­es seen in the geologic record.

Trapped in molecular cages resembling ice, at the bottom of the ocean and in terrestrial permafrost all over the world, is a supply of natural gas that, by conservative estimates, is equivalent to twice the amount of energy contained in all other fossil fuels remaining in the earth’s crust. The question has been whether or not this enormous reserve of energy, known as methane hydrates, existed in nature in a form that was worth pursuing, and whether or not the technology existed to harvest it.
n the spring of 2008, a joint Canadian-Japanese expedition in Mallik in the Northwest Territories, Canada, established that methane hydrates could be harvested by using a water pump to depressurize a well already drilled into the reserve. This involved lowering the pressure by pumping out the water that naturally accumulates in the well. Crucially, it required only 10 to 15 percent of the energy represented by the gas that flowed out of the well, making it a much more viable approach than earlier methods used to harvest hydrates, which involved melting them with warm water. Standard oil and gas drilling equipment was used to reenter an old well drilled to a depth of 3,500 feet and then “refurbish” it by casing the entire well with lengths of steel tubing that cemented into place in order to prevent it from collapsing.

Hydrates require both cold temperatures and high pressure to form; eliminating either condition frees the gas from its icy cage, but past attempts to do this by heating the hydrates proved prohibitively difficult. The Canadian-Japanese expedition successfully produced up to 4,000 cubic meters of gas a day during a six-day trial in 2008 using depressurization.



While no one believes that all of the world’s methane hydrates will be recoverable, the scale of global reserves has been described by the U.S. Department of Energy as “staggering.” They occur anywhere that water, methane, low temperatures, and high pressure co-occur–in other words, in the 23 percent of the world’s land area covered by permafrost and at the bottom of the ocean, particularly the continental shelf.

Increased interest in naturally occurring methane hydrates has been driven by the desire for energy independence from the Middle East and Russia and by the need to find energy sources with less of a potential impact on the climate than coal. (Natural gas produces half as much carbon as coal per unit of energy.) This is reflected by an exponential growth in the number of scientific papers published on the subject per year, according to Carolyn Koh, codirector of the Center for Hydrate Research at the Colorado School of Mines. More than a dozen expeditions designed to harvest or sample terrestrial and marine hydrate reserves have been launched since 2001, not only in the United States and Canada, but also in Japan, Korea, China, and India, 

PROBIOTICS

What are probiotics?
Probiotics are live micro-organisms (mainly bacteria but also yeasts) which are thought provide numerous health benefits. In order to provide these health benefits, probiotics need to be able to survive the acidic environment of the stomach. They also need to be eaten in adequate quantities.

What are the proven health benefits of probiotics?
There is a good deal of scientific evidence suggesting that probiotics are effective for gastrointestinal problems including¹:
Diarrhea: specifically antibiotic associated diarrhea including episodes caused by infection with C. difficile (also known as C. Diff Diarrhea) and

• infectious diarrhea.
• Irritable Bowel Syndrome.
• Inflammatory Bowel Disease: ulcerative colitis, pouchitis, and Crohn’s Disease.
• Food intolerance
• Helicobacter pylori infection.

Research also suggests that probiotics can inhibit tumors, improve immune function and reduce blood cholesterol levels.

Are all probiotics the same in terms of their health benefits?
No, the health benefits are specific to the genus (clan e.g. Lactobacillus), species (family name e.g. acidophilus) and strain (first name e.g. DDS-1). Different strains can have different effects. Therefore if you want to try a probiotic for a specific complaint be sure to select the specific strain that has been proven to help your particular condition.

How can I add probiotics to my diet?
You can add probiotics to your diet either by eating probiotic foods (including beverages) or by taking probiotic supplements. Generally speaking, probiotic supplements usually contain higher numbers of probiotic organisms than probiotic foods. However probiotic foods do have an advantage over probiotic supplements. Many such as probiotic yogurt, milk kefir and vegetable ferments (e.g. fermented cabbage, also known as sauerkraut) are rich in nutrients and/or fiber. Be aware too that many of the processed probiotic foods (e.g. cereals, granola, ice-cream) that have recently appeared on our grocery-store shelves are often high in sugar and additives.

When is the best time to take probiotics?
When you eat a meal, the pH of the stomach rises. The higher the pH, the more likely it is that the probiotic organisms will survive their journey through the stomach. It therefore makes sense to take a probiotic around half an hour after eating.

Where can I purchase probiotics?
You can purchase probiotic foods from grocery and health food stores. As far as probiotic supplements are concerned, these can be purchased from on-line retailers and over-the-counter from pharmacies.

What side-effects should I expect when starting probiotics?
You may experience symptoms of bloating, flatulence (gas), abdominal pain, constipation or diarrhea in the first few days of probiotic therapy. These symptoms occur as your digestive system rebalances in favor of the good bacteria. The symptoms should subside after a few days. However, if they persist, then you can always reduce your dosage and ramp back up slowly.

 Are probiotics safe for children?
Yes, both probiotic foods and supplements are safe for children. There is a wide range of probiotic supplements which are suitable for children. . These are available in a variety of forms including chewable tablets, capsules and powder. Probiotics are also suitable for infants. Once weaned, probiotic foods can be introduced into a baby’s diet. Certain probiotic supplements are also appropriate for infants. 
Some probiotic supplements are cheap, whilst others are expensive. How do I know which supplement offers the best value for money?

The key here is consider the number of probiotic organisms contained in the product. Some probiotic supplements contain very few beneficial organisms, whilst others contain much higher quantities. Information regarding the number of bacteria contained in a product is measured in colony forming units (CFUs) and is listed on the label of all probiotic supplements. Take a look beside “colony-forming units” or “CFUs” on the product label and you will find out how many viable probiotic organisms are contained in each product serving. You can then use this information compare the total number of colony-forming units contained in various products. Click here for our easy-to-use cost comparison tool.
Do all probiotic supplements need to be refrigerated?.
The vast majority of probiotic supplements require refrigeration. However, there are some products, which can be stored at room temperature. These include Align Probiotic, Dr Ohhira’s Probiotics (also known as OMX Probiotics), Florastor and Probiotic Advantage.
I am taking oral antibiotics. Should I take probiotics too?
A side effect of oral antibiotic therapy is that it can adversely affect your digestive flora, wiping out your colonies of good bacteria. As a result one of the most common complaints regarding oral antibiotic therapy is diarrhea. Taking a probiotic supplement can help replenish your good flora, relieving the gastric upset. Remember to take your probiotic supplement at least two hours after your antibiotic dose. This way, the antibiotics do not destroy the good bacteria in the supplement. Continue taking your probiotic supplement for at least two weeks after you have finished your course of antibiotics.

Do all probiotic supplements contain milk?
Many probiotic supplements are grown on milk-based mediums and thus will contain traces of milk. Those containing bacteria belonging to the Lactobacillus clan (genus) are most likely to contain milk as these bacteria thrive best in a dairy medium and thus are usually grown on milk. There are however some probiotic supplements that are dairy free. 

Do all probiotic foods contain milk?
No,only certain probiotic foods contain milk. These include:

• Probiotic yogurt
• Milk kefir
• Buttermilk
• Crème fraiche
• Acidophilus milk
• Fermented dairy milks such as Yakult
• Aged cheeses (for example Gouda, Emmental, Edam and Cheddar)

There are many probiotic foods, which are free of milk products. These include vegetable ferments such as fermented cabbage and Korean kimchi as well as bean ferments including Indonesian Tempeh and miso.

---

e-Kranti’

In order to upscale and ramp up eGovernance initiatives across the country, National eGovernance Plan 2.0 titled “e-Kranti” is formulated by DeitY with a focus on transforming eGovernance for transforming Governance.

The rationale behind the formulation of “e-Kranti” are

• Enlarging the existing portfolio of Mission Mode Projects by adding new MMPs from uncovered domains like social sector schemes, legislature, women & child development, Financial Inclusion etc,
• Leveraging emerging technologies like cloud and mobile,
• Providing integrated services,
• Adopting eGov standards to ensure interoperability amongst applications &
• Harmonizing various core ICT infrastructure components namely SWAN, NKN, NOFN and Meghraj (GI Cloud) for optimum, efficient and on-demand provision of infrastructure.

The fundamental building blocks of e-Kranti are:

• Core principles: ‘Transformation and not Translation’, ‘Integrated Services and not Individual Services’, ‘GPR to be mandatory in every MMP’, ‘Infrastructure on Demand’, ‘Cloud by Default’, ‘Mobile First’, ‘Fast Tracking Approvals’ and ‘Mandating Standards and Protocols’.
• Institutions & instruments: establishing a ‘National e-Governance Academy’, creating an ‘e-Governance Knowledge Portal’, creating an ‘e-Governance Impact Index’ and ‘effective use of social media’.
• Implementation & delivery models: ‘transforming the delivery channels’, ‘awareness and communication’, ‘introducing new business models’ and ‘emphasis on undertaking exports of eGov solutions / applications and international cooperation’.

National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJA)

National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJA) is a proposed body responsible for the appointment and transfer of judges to the higher judiciary in India. The Commission is proposed to be established by amending the Constitution of India through the ninety-ninth constitution amendment vide the Constitution (One Hundred and Twenty First Amendment Bill) 2014 passed by the Lok Sabha on 13 August 2014 and by the Rajya Sabha on 14 August 2014. The Bill, if ratified by half of the state legislatures in India and assented by the President of India, will replace the collegium system for the appointment of judges as mandated in the existing pre-amended constitution by a new system. Along with the Constitution Amendment Bill, the National Judicial Appointments Commission Bill, 2014, was also passed by the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha to regulate the functions of the National Judicial Appointments Commission.

Constitution of the National Judicial Appointments Commission

A new article, Article 124A, (which provides for the composition of the NJAC) will be inserted into the Constitution if the amendment is ratified.

Composition

As per the amended provisions of the constitution, the Commission will consist of the following persons:

• Chief Justice of India (Chairperson, ex officio)
• Two other senior judges of the Supreme Court next to the Chief Justice of India - ex officio
• The Union Minister of Law and Justice, ex-officio
• Two eminent persons (to be nominated by a committee consisting of the Chief Justice of India, Prime Minister of India and the Leader of opposition in the Lok Sabha or where there is no such Leader of Opposition, then, the Leader of single largest Opposition Party in Lok Sabha), provided that of the two eminent persons, one person would be from the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes or OBC or minority communities or a woman. The eminent persons shall be nominated for a period of three years and shall not be eligible for re-nomination.

Functions of the Commission

As per the amended constitution, the functions of the Commission include the following:

• Recommending persons for appointment as Chief Justice of India, Judges of the Supreme Court, Chief Justices of High Courts and other Judges of High Courts.
• Recommending transfer of Chief Justices and other Judges of High Courts from one High Court to any other High Court.
• Ensuring that the persons recommended are of ability and integrity.

Procedures to be followed by the Commission

The National Judicial Appointments Commission Bill, 2014, has laid down the following procedures for the selection of the Judges of the higher judiciary.

Procedure for Selection of Supreme Court judges

Chief Justice of India

The Commission shall recommend the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court for appointment as Chief Justice of India. This is provided he/she is considered fit to hold the office.

Supreme Court Judges

The Commission shall recommend names of persons on the basis of their ability, merit and other criteria specified in the regulations.

The Commission shall not recommend a person for appointment if any two of its members do not agree to such recommendation.

Procedure for Selection of High Courts judges

Chief Justices of High Courts

The Commission shall recommend a Judge of a High Court to be the Chief Justice of a High Court on the basis of seniority across High Court judges. The ability, merit and other criteria of suitability as specified in the regulations would also be considered.

Appointment of other High Court Judges

The Commission shall seek nominations from Chief Justice of the concerned High Court for appointments of High Court Judges and then forward such names to the Chief Justice of the concerned High Courts for his/her views. In both cases, the Chief Justice of the High Court shall consult two senior most judges of that High Court and any other judges and advocates as specified in the regulations. The Commission shall elicit the views of the Governor and Chief Minister of the state before making recommendations. The Commission shall not recommend a person for appointment if any two members of the Commission do not agree to such recommendation.

1. Jump up

Global Infrastructure Facility (GIF)

The World Bank (WB) has launched the GIF to specifically cater to the infrastructure needs of the emerging economies and developing countries. The GIF will channel money towards bankable infrastructure project in such countries. GIF also places importance on sustainable development. Its key focus will be on climate friendly infrastructureinvestments and projects that will boost trade.

The GIF will collaborate with other international and multilateral agencies which provide loans and financial assistance to countries across the globe. It will also help these agencies with its expertise in financing, supervising and implementing projects. Another areas where GIF could provide assistance it ensuring that all regulatory, environmental and social safeguards are met with while investing in large scale infrastructure projects. GIF will also work with private entities like asset management companies, private equity firms, pensions and insurance funds and commercial banks to tap into multiple sources of funding.

CYCLONE NILOFAR

• A deep depression that has formed over the Arabian Sea is expected to turn into a tropical cyclone Nilofar. Nilofar has the potential to strengthen to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane before its Arabian Peninsula landfall.
• In India, the North Gujarat coast is expected to bear the brunt of Nilofar. It is expected to land in Gujarat on October 31 with a wind speed of over 120 kmph
• District authorities in the coastal areas of Gujarat have been warned to be prepared for heavy rains and storm. The authorities are also monitoring the situation and the control rooms are operational. The authorities of the Kandla Port Trust, State Maritime Board and the Forest Department, besides local leaders in villages have been put on high alert.
• According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), the coastal districts of Gujarat will isolated very heavy rainfall from October 30 which will intensify further into a severe cyclone storm within 24 hours
• Alerts will be issued to concerned local authorities on status of the storm every three hours
• Other than India, Nilofar is also expected to hit eastern Yemen or Oman with damaging winds, flooding rain and dangerously rough seas. It is also expected to bring potentially heavy rainfall to parts ofPakistan, especially Karachi.
• It is to be noted that tropical cyclones are unusual in this part of the world. Generally, only one or two tropical cyclones form every year in Arabian Sea.

About Naming of cyclones

In the West, hurricanes and tropical cyclones have been given their own names since 1953. This was done in accordance with a convention by Miami’s NationalHurricane Centre and is maintained and updated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). WMO is an agenct of the UN and based out of Geneva.

However, South Asia and the Middle East did not adhere to this practice of naming storms till much later. In an effort to name the cyclones without offending any of the countries in the region, all the countries came together in 2004 to evolve a mechanism to name the tropical cyclones. According to the agreed upon system, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Sri Lanka and Thailand meet every year and each country submits its list of names. Each country gets a turn to name the storm in alphabetical order. Till now, the countries have decided on 64 names. Hudhud was a suggestion of Oman, while Nilofar was Pakistan’s suggestion.

IRNSS 1C

IRNSS 1C, the next satellite in India’s IRNSS (Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System) series, was launched successfully on October 16 by ISRO. IRNSS 1C was launched on a PSLV C26 from Sriharikota. The satellite is similar to, and follows the IRNSS 1A and 1B which were launched in April 2013 and July 2014 respectively.

Details of launch

The rocket lifted off at 1.32 am. The satellite weighed 1, 425.4 kg and was successfully placed into a sub geosynchronous transfer orbit just 20 minutes after the launch. This was the 7th time that ISRO used an XL version of the PSLV rocket for its mission. The life of the satellite is estimated at 10 years.

IRNSS series

IRNSS is a navigation system that will cover India, and also extend 1,500 kms from its boundaries. It will provide accurate position information to users in India and will also be used for terrestrial and marine navigation, disaster management, fleet management and for vehicle tracking. Basically it will provide two kinds of services, Standard Positioning Services, which is available to all users, and an encrypted service that is provided only to authorized users. However, to be able to use the IRNSS satellites, ISRO will have to launch at least four of the seven planned IRNSS satellites. The complete IRNSS system will include three satellites in geostationary orbit and four satellites in geosynchronous orbit at an altitude of 36,000 km above the Earth. The deployment of all the satellites was expected to be completed by 2015 at a cost of Rs. 1,420 cr.

IRNSS is similar to other satellite navigation service providers like USA’s GPS (Global Positioning System), Russia’s Glonass, Europe’s Galileo, Japan’s Quasi Zenith and China’s Beidou.

Applications of IRNSS

• Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
• Disaster Management
• Vehicle tracking and fleet management
• Integration with mobile phones
• Precise Timing
• Mapping and Geodetic data capture
• Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
• Visual and voice navigation for drivers

GSLV MK III

About Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mark-III)

• ISRO has developed the geo-synchronous satellite launch vehicle (GSLV-Mark I-III) with indigenous cryogenic engine
• The main function of GSLV Mark-III is for Mid-Heavy Lift Launch System.
• Objective: To launch heavy satellites weighing more than two tonnes into geostationary orbit 36,000 km above Earth.
• It will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting.
• GSLV Mark-III comprises of three stage vehicle with a first stage consisting of two identical large solid boosters strapped onto the second liquid stage. The third stage is a cryogenic stage.

ISRO’s flight development plans

• First development flight (GSLV MK III D1) with an operational cryogenic stage is planned in between 2016 to 2017.
• Second development flight (GSLV Mk-III D2) is planned after one year of GSLV Mk-III D1 flight in 2017 to 2018.
• Successful flight development will help in India’s manned mission to space.
• The 630-tonne GSLV-MK III will carry a crew module of 3.65-tonne. ISRO plans to send astronauts into space eventually.

PRADHAN MANTRI JAN-DHAN YOJANA (PMJDY)

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana(Hindi: प्रधानमंत्री जन धन योजना, English: Prime Minister's People Funding Scheme) is an ambitious scheme for comprehensive financial inclusion launched by the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi on 28 August 2014 He had announced this scheme on his first Independence Day speech on 15 August 2014.

Run by Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance, on the inauguration day, 1.5 Crore (15 million) bank accounts were opened under this scheme. By September 2014, 3.02 crore accounts were opened, with around 1500 crore (US$240 million) were deposited under the scheme, which also has an option for opening new bank accounts with zero balance.

SBI, India's largest bank had opened 11,300 camps for Jan Dhan Yojana over 30 lakhs accounts were opened so far, which include 21.16 lakh accounts in rural areas and 8.8 lakh accounts in urban areas. On the contrast, even taking together all the major private sector banks, have opened just 5.8 lakh accounts.

Purpose

In a run up to the formal launch of this scheme, the Prime Minister personally mailed to CEOs of all PSU banks to gear up for the gigantic task of enrolling over 7.0 crore (75 million) households and to open their accounts. In this email he categorically declared that a bank account for each household was a "national priority".

The scheme has been started with a target to provide 'universal access to banking facilities' starting with "Basic Banking Accounts" with overdraft facility of Rs.5000 after six months and RuPay Debit card with inbuilt accident insurance cover of Rs. 1 lakh and RuPay Kisan Card. In next phase, micro insurance & pension etc. will also be added.^[1]

Under the scheme:

1. Account holders will be provided zero-balance bank account with RuPay debit card, in addition to accidental insurance cover of Rs 1 lakh.

2. Those who open accounts by January 20, 2015 over and above the 1 lakh ₹ accident, they will be given life insurance cover of Rs 30,000.

3. After Six months of opening of the bank account, holders can avail 5,000 ₹ loan from the bank.

4. With the introduction of new technology introduced by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), a person can transfer funds, check balance through a normal phone which was earlier limited only to smart phones so far.

5. Mobile banking for the poor would be available through National Unified USSD Platform (NUUP) for which all banks and mobile companies have come together

Performance

Due to the preparations done in the run-up, as mentioned above, on the inauguration day, 1.5 Crore (15 million) bank accounts were opened.The Prime Minister said on this occasion- "Let us celebrate today as the day of financial freedom." By September 2014, 3.02 crore accounts were opened under the scheme, amongst Public sector banks, SBI had opened 30 lakh accounts, followed by Punjab National Bank with 20.24 lakh accounts, Canara Bank 16.21 lakh accounts, Central Bank of India 15.98 lakh accounts and Bank of Baroda with 14.22 lakh accounts.  It was reported that total of 7 Crore (70 million) bank accounts have been opened with deposits totaling more than 5000 crore Rupees (approx 1 billion USD) as of November 6, 2014. 

Q.  What is RuPay Debit Card?

Ans. Rupay Debit Card is an indigenous domestic debit card introduced by National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI). This card is accepted at all ATMs (for cash withdrawal) and at most of the PoS machines (for making cas

Q.  What is special advantage of RuPay Debit Card?

Ans. It provides accidental insurance cover upto Rs.1.00 lac without any charge to the customer.hless payment for purchases) in the country.

Q. How to keep your RuPay Card safe?

Ans. Beneficiary of RuPay Card is required to keep the Card in safe custody. PIN should be changed at frequent intervals and should never be shared with anyone. While using the card at ATM Machine or PoS, PIN should be entered in machine very secretly so that nobody could even guess about the PIN Number. As far as possible, Card should be used at authorized places / centres only. Besides, PIN number should never be written on the Card.Q. 11. Whether illiterate customers can be issued RuPay Card?

Ans. Yes. However, Branch Manager will have to advise all the related risks to the illiterate account-holder at the time of issuance of RuPay Card.